The police since the inception of civilisation in one form or the other has always played an important role in the prevention of crime. It was and no doubt still is a symbol for many citizens of society as an imposer and enforcer of laws; the police represents the law in action and the public often sees them simply as the secular arm of the executive and judicial authorities’. In fact, police is the first agency for the administration of criminal justice amongst other agencies and is considered to be the first line of defence against crime.? They are the entry point of the criminal justice system for the first offenders and re-entry for the failures of other subsystems.3 They are important because they keep our complex society together. They keep the citizens working and prospering within the framework of civilized law and acceptable social conduct.

Police

If we examine the word ‘Police’ we find that it has been derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ meaning the state. Police today designates ” the executive civil force of a state to which is entrusted the duty of maintaining public order and of enforcing regulations for the prevention and detection of crime”. The term ‘Police’, according to Oxford Dictionary means,” a system of regulation for the preservation of order and enforcement of laws of the internal government of a state. Apparently the police were called so because of their being the external manifestation of the power of the state.

Police as an organisation and policemen as individuals have been experiencing the dynamics of such trends and their meaningful effects in different societies with the passage of time. It is essential for a civilized society that laws are not only followed but also respected. There are two observations which must be made at this stage. One, the duty of police is not only to enforce law but also to observe it. This has been succintly said by Atiyah, “If those responsible for enforcing the law can be neither compelled nor persuaded to observe law, then the law is in practice is likely to be disregarded.” Two, again in the words of Atiyah, “Law is merely a tool, an instrument by which policies and goals otherwise decided upon, can be aimed at those who make and enforce the law.” It is, thus, the mundane duty of police not only to apply law but also to increase the probability of detection as well as to ensure that none gets a feeling of breaking and having the satisfaction that he has not been seen or pointed out.

POLICE FUNCTIONS

In a democracy, the function of the police has to be founded on two basic principles, namely

• Consent and balance, and

 (2) Independence and accountability.

These imply securing the consent of the community and striking a balance between different objectives of the role of police in society, as well as maintaining independence in functioning but always remaining accountable to the law of the land and parliamentary institutions.? In fact, law enforcement in a democratic society is a complex and complicated job. The work of the police as the main law enforcement agency is consequently a very difficult one because the police have to reconcile the dilemma of preserving liberty and human rights of the individual on one hand and enforcing laws which aim at preservation of society from the operations of the anti-social elements on the other. A policeman, it has been said, has to function in a democratic system “as a battlefield for tension between the state and individual”

“The police officer”, says Ben White baker,? “acts as a lightning conductor for resentment against many observations of society for which he is not responsible.” It is rightly said that the police is an organ of society developed for the preservation of social order and protection of the state authority. The task before the police administrators today is to ensure that the police use their force and authority with utmost restraint and only in unavoidable circumstances.

In India, the police perform, mainly three type of functions:

Maintenance of law and order, which includes prevention of criminal activities; to deal with explosive situations created by political mobilisation, control political demonstrations and public meetings organised by political parties; to deal with ‘gheraoes’ and ‘dharnas’, student indiscipline, control of vehicular traffic and to deal with traffic violations and offences etc. Investigation into the offences already committed, arresting the culprit and bringing him before the judiciary with witnesses and evidences collected during investigation. The third task is implementation of social legislation. The most generally accepted police functions according to P. Whisenand 1° are as under:

(i) To identify criminal offenders and criminal activities, and wherever appropriate, to apprehend offenders and participate in subsequent court proceedings; L 88 D

Indian Police: Law and Reality

 (ii) To reduce the opportunities for the commission of some crimes through preventive control and other measures;

 (iii) Toad individuals who are in danger of physical harm;

 (iv) To protect constitutional guarantees;

 (v) To facilitate the movement of people and vehicles;

 (vi) To assist those who cannot care for themselves;

 (vii) To resolve conflicts;

 (viii) To identify problems that are potentially serious law enforcement or government problems;

 (x) To create and maintain a feeling of security in the community;

 (x) To promote and preserve civil order; and

 (xi) To provide other services on an emergency basis.

It is pertinent to mention that the police myth rests on the view that police is only meant to deal with crime and criminals without realising any relationship between the cause and effect, the crimogenic factors, various other irresistible and irreversible changes in the society and social order. The citizens’ interest in crime and criminals is limited to the celluloid presentation perception or the personal suffering of a crime victim. Even a policeman has a limited perception of the job, most of which, as per his understanding, is confined to dealing with crime in the context of a criminal.” Here the task of policing in proper perspective is needed because in a welfare state, the police role is not only one of protection and social defence, but of social welfare as well.

They have to function as a social service organisation and deal with crime and public order in a manner of the public. Police, as an organisation, has to carry out certain expected behaviours, irrespective of their own personal feelings at a given time, and therefore, it is possible to generalize about the professional role behaviour of police regardless of their Police for Welfare in Welfare State individual characteristics. Role is sociologically important because it demonstrated now individual activity in a vast and complex network of “patterned human relationship” in which everyone is a participant, change in the social relationships, their attitudes, organisational structure, operational accountability mechanism and procedures governing the policeman as an individual and the police organisation as a whole.

In the rural areas, the police is generally involved in tackling general cases like theft, robbery, murder, hurt etc. but in urban areas the police not only provide security and protection to the public, they are also involved in some welfare activities. In big cities, the police directs the traffic, provides security during big sporting events, controls the political processions and strikes, tackles communal riots, terrorists and other anti-social activities etc. Another vital function of the police is to provide security to the VIPs.

 This is an admitted fact that the police work has been claimed as one of the most stressful occupations today. Batch observes13 that ” there are four factors which may lead to the formation of police attitudes such as job stress, police culture, organisational structure and poor dynamics”. Recent developments in the field of political, socio-cultural and economic have affected the role of police and the manner in which the role should be performed.

 PREVENTION AND DETECTION OF CRIME 

The most important duties of the police are the prevention of crime and the maintenance of law and order. The police derive their power from the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Police Act. S.23 of the Police Act gives them wide powers for the prevention of offences and breaches of law. The Criminal Procedure Code also speaks about the preventive role of police in Sections 149 to 153. The police has got a very elastic personality while preventing 490 D crime but it depends upon the manner in which police functions. Needless to say that if the police organisation is efficient, effective and competent, crime cannot only be detected timely but could also be prevented effectively.

ENFORCEMENT OF LAW

Broadly speaking, the traditional role of the police is two-fold operation, such as enforcing the rule of law and using force to maintain public order. As a law enforcement agency, the police is guided by well-defined legal standards to judge violations and to take action. But even in this sphere of its activity, the police run into difficulties if the laws do not enjoy public support and sanction. “There is a strong view among social scientists that in the enforcement of law, the role of the police should also be discretionary, conciliatory and mediatory. Only then this important role of the police could be wholesome, meaningful and purposive. There is no denying the fact that the law enforcement role of the police is mandatory and also complex.

 ROLE OF POLICE AND WELFARE STATE

 In every society, the administration develops according to the social conditions. In order to enable its members to enjoy all freedom and the fruits of their labour without any threat to their lives and property, state regulates the activities of their members through laws. Almost every state, and India is no exception, claims to be called a welfare state. The term ‘welfare usually means the general good of a person or persons or of a group or groups who are normally below the accepted norms of living. They are supposed to be in need of external help and assistance to reach the usual accepted standard. The definition given by Encyclopedia Britannica reads,’ “System of laws and institutions through which a government attempts to protect and promote the economic Police for Welfare in Welfare State and social welfare of its citizens are usually bases of various forms of social insurance against unemployment, accident, illness and old age.”

Determining the meaning and content of the welfare state is by no means an easy task. There is a lot of confusion regarding the meaning of several phrases and terminologies used in the literature on welfare. Herald is right when he says!

“The very connotation of the phrase ‘welfare state is indefinite, elastic, indeterminate and fallible. It is a catch all phrase, an omnibus for many divergent schemes that are in need of justification through association with respectability, thus the appeal to the idea of welfare”.

Welfare terminology in India has got a considerable ambiguity with the term ‘Social Service’, ‘Social Welfare’. Being aware of the expanded role of the state in the promotion of the people’s welfare, the fathers of Indian Constitution included certain provisions in our Constitution for the attainment of the ideal of welfare state in India.

The Preamble declares:

“We, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens:

Justice, Social, Economic and Political;

Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all

Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation.

In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this Constitution.The Preamble of the Indian Constitution contains all the attributes of welfare state as it lays emphasis on justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The Preamble clearly explains the kind of social order the Constitution envisages, the nature of balance between individual liberty and social control. The ideas of the Preamble have been amplified in Part Ill and Part IV of the Constitution of India which serve as a “beacon light to India on her march towards the temple of socio-economic justice.”

In the Preamble, the word ‘democratic’ indicates that the Constitution has established a form of Government which gets its authority from the will of the people and embraces in addition to political democracy, also social and economic democracy. For achieving these objectives the police will have to preserve the interests and rights of the weaker sections and always be assertive to make their voice effective.

The Constitution also provides for the fundamental rights which are the logical corollaries of the Preamble and make them justifiable. An aggrieved citizen can go to a court of law for redressal. These are as under:

Right to Equality

Articles 14 to 18 of the Constitution of India guarantee the right to equality to every citizen. Article 14 declares that the state shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.

In this way Art. 14 not only embodies the ideas of equality expressed in the Preamble, it also embodies the general principles of equality before law and prohibits unreasonable discrimination between persons. Article 15 relates to prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth but nothing in Article 15 shall prevent the state from making any special provisions for women and children. State is also empowered to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens in the matter of appointment to any office or of any other employment under the state. No citizen can be discriminated against or be ineligible for any employment or office under the state on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or residence. Article 17 abolishes “untouchability’ and forbids its practice in any form. To remove the untouchability from the society “the protection ofCivil Rights, 1955” has been passed. Article 18 prohibits the state to confer titles to anybody whether a citizen or a non-citizen.

Rights to Freedom

Articles 19 to 22 deal with different aspects of this basic right. Article 19 guarantees the six fundamental freedoms:

• Freedom of Speech and Expression (ii) Freedom of Assembly (iii) Freedom to Form Associations (iv) Freedom of Movement (v) Freedom of Residence and to settle (vi) Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade or Business.

The guarantee of each of the above rights is restricted by the Constitution itself by conferring upon the state a power to impose by law reasonable restrictions as may be necessary in the larger interest of the Community. Article 20(1) provides that no person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of law in force’ at the time of the commission of the act charged as an offence’. Article 20(2) provides that ‘no person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once’. Article 20 (3) provides that no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. Article 21 says that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law’. The interpretation of the word ‘Personal liberty’ was narrow. In Gopalan’s case, personal liberty was said to mean only liberty relating to, or concerning. the person or body of the individual and in this sense it was antithesis or physical restraint or coercion. But this restrictive interpretation of the expression has not been followed by the Supreme Court in its decisions. In Maneka Gandhi vs Union of India, the court has given the widest possible interpretation to the word ‘personal liberty’. It was held that right to ‘live is not merely confined to physical existence but it includes, within its ambit, the right to live with human dignity. So far as the procedure is concerned, it must be fair, just and reasonable and not fanciful, oppressive or arbitrary. Article 22 deals with two separate matters:-

(1) persons arrested under the ordinary law of crimes; and

(2) persons detained under the law of ‘Preventive Detention’ clause (1) and (2) of Article 22, guarantee four rights to the persons who are arrested under an ordinary law:-

(a) the right to be informed as soon as may be of ground of arrest,

(b) the right to consult and to be represented by a lawyer of his own choice,

(c) the rightto be produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours,

(d) the freedom from detention beyond the said period except by the order of the Magistrate.

Clauses (4) to (7) of Article 22 provide the procedure which is to be followed if a person is arrested under the law of ‘Prevention Detention’. The sole justification of such detention is suspicion or reasonable probability of the detent committing some act likely to cause harm to the society or endanger the security of the Government, and not criminal conviction which can only be warranted by legal evidence.

Article 23 of Constitution prohibits traffic in human beings and be grand other similar forms of forced labour. The second part of this Article declares that any contravention of the provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law. Clause (2) permits that state to impose compulsory services for public purposes provided that in making so it shall not make any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste or class or any of them.

Article 24 of the Constitution prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and hazardous employment. This provision is certainly in the interest of public health and safety of life of children. This Article, however, does not prohibit their employment in any innocent or harmless job or work.

There are other two fundamental rights apart from constitutional remedies. These are right to freedom of religion (Article 25-28) and cultural and educational rights (Article 29-31).

 PREVENTIVE ROLE OF THE POLICE IN PROTECTION OF THE WEAKER SECTIONS

 One of the worst crime against human dignity is the practice of untouchability. We have seen earlier the Constitutional provision. Laws have been passed to prohibit and punish this in human practice. In order to make the law more stringent to remove untouchability from the society, the Untouchability (Offence) Act 1955 renamed as Protection of Civil Rights, 1955 has come into force. Under the amended act any discrimination on the ground of untouchability will be considered an offence.

It imposes a duty on public servants to investigate such offences. It provides that if a public servant wilfully neglects the investigation of any offence punishable under this act, he shall be deemed to have abetted an offence punishable under this act. The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 prescribes punishment for any one enforcing on the ground of untouchability, religious disabilities like preventing any person from entering any place of public worship or from worshipping or offering prayers therein (Section 3) or social disabilities like (Section 7), access to any shop, public restaurants, hotels or places of public entertainment (Section 4) and refusing to admit persons to hospitals and refusing to sell goods or render services to any person (Section 6). It makes all the offences cognizable and non-compoundable.

The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 specifies the atrocities which are liable to penalties under the act. These are denudation, wrongful occupation of land-dispossession, bonded labour, intimidation during the voting, mischievous litigation, false information, public humiliation, outrage of modesty, sexual exploitation etc. These offences under this act carry heavier penalties than similar offences under the Indian Penal Code. Despite the constitutional safeguards, the special enactments and welfare measure, the atrocities against weaker sections/ Dalits are Continuing with greater intensity with connivance of local police.

Besides the constitutional provisions regarding children and their exploitations, some legislations have been enacted to protect young children’s health and prevent their exploitations by working in factories, mines or hazardous employments. These are Factories Act, 1948, Mines Act, 1952, Bonded Labour (Abolition) System Act, 1976, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, Juvenile Justice Act, 1986. It is pertinent to mention that these welfare enactments have proved failure on account of the failure of the police to put the criminal process in motion against the employer and the parents of the children who collude to break these laws.

Although Constitution prohibits traffic in human beings but it remains an empty slogan. Police fail to initiate criminal proceedings to eradicate this evil under laws like Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956. Keeping a brothel or allowing premises to be used as a brothel (Section 3) or living on the earnings of prostitution (Section 4) or procuring, inducing or Police for Welfare in Welfare State taking person for the sake of prostitution (Section 5) or detaining a woman or girl in premises where prostitution is carried on etc. are punishable but police often failed to prosecute the offenders. Besides burning, cruelty or harassment, dowry-deaths and other offences arising out of the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 have been noticed for years. It is necessary that against these offences, a keen and prompt step must be taken which would prevent such occurrences. An initiative role of police is required to prevent these types of menace. To enforce the social legislations and to prosecute and punish the offenders, police can itself possess and bring in sharp focus the question of their exercise in an efficient manner while deriving the powers and functions from the statute.

PREVENTIVE ROLES OF POLICE AGAINST FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND ASSEMBLY

Despite the constitutional guarantee of right to freedom, these liberties are often curtailed by the police authorities.

They are ignorant about tackling the peaceful protest marches and demonstrations. These protestors/ demonstrators are regarded as potential criminals rather than as citizens entitled to exercise their fundamental rights despite their prior permission in the form of licence. Section 129-132 of Criminal Procedure Code embodies the procedure to tackle the unlawful assemblies. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 also provides for more effective prevention of certain unlawful activities of individuals and associations.

POLICE AS A WATCHDOG OF DEMOCRACY

For strengthening the foundations of free and open society, the police can play a key role and can generate among the people a healthy respect for law. Police can work as a watchdog of democracy. One cannot ignore that fact that the police is already being called upon to perform numerous duties for which they were never trained or equipped. Legislations, aimed at curbing social and economic offences, have added a new dimension to the role of police. The spectrum of punitive, regulatory and restrictive functions of the police is today very wide. In these new dimensions, the role as a watchdog of democracy is quite complicated and sensitive.

But this role can be performed only when the police functions as an instrument of law and the state and not of the society. Above all, police attitude, not only in organisation but as an individual, is necessary to be changed so that they can visualise the concept of equality enshrined in the Constitution and do justice to individual and mankind as well.

CODE OF CONDUCT OF POlICE IN INDIA

1. The police must bear faithful allegiance to the Constitution of India and respect and uphold the rights of the citizens as guaranteed by it.
2. The police should not question the propriety or necessity of any law duly enacted. They should enforce the law firmly and impartially, without fear or favour, malice or vindictiveness.
3. The police should recognise and respect the limitations of their powers and functions. They should not usurp or even seem to usurp the functions of the judiciary and sit on judgment on cases to avenge individuals and punish the guilty.
4. In securing the observance of law or in maintaining order, the police should, as far as practicable, use the methods of persuasion, advice and warning. When the application of force becomes inevitable, only the irreducible minimum of force required in the circumstances should be used.
5. The prime duty of the police is to prevent crime and disorder and the police must recognise that the test of their efficiency is the absence of both and not the visible evidence of police action in dealing with them.
6. The police must recognise that they are members of the public, with the only difference that in the interest of the society and on its behalf they are employed to give full time attention to duties which are normally incumbent on every citizen to perform.
7. The police should realise that the efficient performance of their duties will be dependent on the extent of ready cooperation that they receive from the public. This, in turn, will depend on their ability to secure public approval of their conduct and actions and to earn and retain public respect and confidence.
8. The police should always keep the welfare of the people in mind and be sympathetic and considerate towards them. They should always be ready to offer individuals service and friendship and render necessary assistance to all without regard to their wealth or social standing.
9. The police should always place duty before self, should remain calm in the face of danger, scorn or ridicule and should be ready to sacrifice their lives in protecting those of others.
10. The police should always be courteous and well mannered; they should be dependable and impartial; they should possess dignity and courage; and should cultivate character and the trust of the people.
11. Integrity of the highest order is the fundamental basis of the prestige of the police. Recognising this, the police must keep their private lives scrupulously clean, develop self-restraint and be truthful and honest in thought and deed in both personal and official life, so that the public may regard them as exemplary citizens.
12. The police should recognise that their full utilities to the state is best ensured only by maintaining a high standard of discipline, faithful performance of duties in accordance with law and implicit obedience to the lawful directions of commanding ranks and absolute loyalty to the force and by keeping themselves in a state of constant training and preparedness.
13. As members of a secular, democratic state the police should strive continually to rise above personal prejudices and promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women and disadvantaged segments of the society.

(Union Ministry of Home Affairs Letters No. V1-24021/ 97 /84-GPA.1 dated 4-7-85 and 10-7-85 addressed to the Chief Secretaries of the states/UT’s and Head of the C.P.O’s)

CONCLUSION

Law and order are essential to civilised existence. Ina lawless society, where violence predominates the human rights of individuals and of groups, are likely to be trampled on or, at the very last, ignored. Thus, maintenance of law and order, whether in identifying and investigating criminal activity or in controlling civil unrest, is clearly the primary task of a police force. The police in India are well-knit organisation, attuned to the objective of protection of society through social control, social defence and social service. If only the police in India will go all out to assist the victims of society to get to know their problems and enable them to legitimately enjoy all their guaranteed rights and give assistance, and also take effective steps, where their rights are infringed and the legitimate assistance due to them is interfered with.

Today, every aspect of human life is touched by the state which, in fact, is an administrative state. There is a large section of the general public, who have no direct concern with the police. These people have no direct dealings with the police in the normal course of their life, but they are no less conscious of the presence of the police and have their own perception of policing of the society in which they live. They hear about how their police discharge their roles, from their friends, relations, the press and reports and journals. They also see the police in action as on patrol, on traffic duty escorting VIPs i accused persons.

pets through the need for life and property w ch every individual so feels. People feel secure in their homes, on the road, pursuit of their daily vocations because they believe would be around for the proper maintenance of law The relationship is invisible but vital, and the of the public is full of expectations.™ No doubt police be accountable to law and the public through the various legislative bodies and organs of the public opinion.

Justice M.C.Chagla said, ‘ “a welfare state necessarily must be a powerful state; it must be armed with all the powers it needs to function as a welfare state. It must be in a position to impose controls, it must also necessarily encroach upon and infringe human freedom, and we cannot deny to a welfare state the power that it needs. But how are you going to reconcile the liberty of the individual with such a powerful state that is growing up in our country”. The police are under a statutory duty to function in accordance with the mandate of the legislature and it would be gross violation of the statute for the state government to alter the code of conduct contrary to the provisions of the law. The moment an offence is committed or intended to be committed, the law takes its own course and it is not open either to the police officer or minister to change the course of law, much less to prohibit the policeman from doing his legal duty in accordance with the provisions of the various acts.22 Police work demands an ability to adopt readily to constantly changing demands. Essentially a well established yet moderately flexible police service plays an important role in a dynamic society by serving as “a bridge between the older order and the new order” 2’ For this is necessary in a democratic society that police should not themselves break laws while dealing with the groups of people who believe in violence and who work for breaking laws. Government should issue definite and clear guidelines for the police so that while implementing laws, police themselves do not go against degree that to some extent discretion is necessary and there is no need to follow the guidelines but often it has been seen that the discretionary power of a police officer leads to him to arbitrarily, whimsicality or tyrannically. Ramsay Clark visualises the role of a policeman in democratic set-up and in a welfare state as under:

“The modern policeman must be a law enforcer and lawyers, scientists in a whole range of physical sciences-chemistry, physics, electronic media, psychologists, social workers, human relations and ethnic relations experts, marriage counsellors, youth advisors, athletes, public servants- these are but a few of the many skills a police officer must personally possess and perform them with excellence; safety of life and property, equal justice, liberty, confidence in government and the purpose of our laws depend on the policeman”.

Factually, the police officers are today witnessing a conflict between human reaction to change and an increased need for change. Particularly in the developing countries, police officers have to perform the role of ‘change-agents’ and should be able to diagnose, understand and resolve human resistance to change. There is no denying the fact that there is a bright future for police in India if concerted efforts are made to make the police organisation, a public service-oriented one, instead of an establishment protection agency.

Let the people of India witness a revolution in police attitude and work behaviour. 

References

1. Aggarwal, R.S., Prevention of Crime (1977), p. 58.
2. Pal, N.C., Crime, Cause and Cure (1963), p. 47.
3. Vetter, H.G. & Simoniason, Criminal Justice in America (1976), p. 9.
4. Geoffery, A.R., Administration of Criminal Justice A Management
5. System Approach (1974), p. 216.
6. Encyclopedia Britannica: Vol. 18, p. 158.
7. Atiyah, P.S., Law and Modern Society (1983), p. 68 and p. 74. Bawa, P.S.,System of Policing.
8. Ghose, S.K., Keeping the Peace; for Whom the Bell Tolls, p. 74.
9. Sen, Sankar., Indian Police Today, p. 57.
10. White baker, Ben, The Police in Society.
11. Whisen and, Paul M., Police Supervision: Theory & Practice, p. 8.
12. Bawa, P.S., System of Policing p. 3-4.
13. Mishra, Rashmi & Mohanty Samarendra, Police & Social Change in India, p. 2-3.
14. Batch, R.W., Police Personality; Journal of Law, Criminology and Science, vol. 63 No.1.
15. Mishra, Rashmi & Mohanty Samarendra, Police & Social Change in India, p. 7-8.
16. Encyclopaedia Britannica: vol. 23 (Chicago, 1972) p. 389.
17. Heald, Mark H., The Concept of Welfare State in S.P. Aiyar ed. perspectives on the welfare state, p. 132-133.
18. Gajendra gadkar, P.B., The Constitution of India: Its Philosophy and Basic Postulate (N. Delhi, 1969) p. 20-21.
19. A.K.Gopalan v state of Madras, AIR 1950 SC. 27.
20. Sahai,S.B., Police & the Public, decision vol. 13, No.3 p. 169.
21. Chagla, M.C., The Individual and the State, Bombay, 1961, p. 63.
22. Mathur, K.M., The Problem of Police Accountability in a Democratic Society, Ed. Problems of Police in a Democratic Society, p. 8.
23. Ibid, p. 231.
24. Clark, Ramsay, Crime in America: Observations on its Nature, Cause, Prevention and Control, Simmon and Schuster, New York, (1971).